JavaUnderstanding the 2D Discrete Cosine Transform in Java, Part 2

Understanding the 2D Discrete Cosine Transform in Java, Part 2

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Java Programming Notes # 2448


Preface

This lesson is part of a series designed to teach you about the inner
workings of data and image compression.  The first lesson in the series was
lesson number 2440 entitled
Understanding the Lempel-Ziv Data Compression Algorithm in Java.

An earlier lesson entitled
Understanding the Discrete Cosine Transform
in Java taught you about the one-dimensional Discrete Cosine Transform. 
The previous lesson,
Part 1 of this two-part lesson, deals with
the two-dimensional Discrete Cosine Transforms (2D-DCT).

JPEG image compression

One of the objectives of this series is to teach you about the inner workings
of JPEG image compression.  According to
Wikipedia,

"… JPEG … is a commonly used standard method of

lossy compression
for photographic images. … JPEG/JFIF is the most
common format used for storing and transmitting photographs on the

World Wide Web
."

Central components

One of the central components of JPEG image compression is
entropy encoding
Huffman encoding, which was the primary topic of the earlier lesson entitled
Understanding the Huffman Data Compression Algorithm in Java, is a common
form of entropy encoding.

Another central component of JPEG compression is the two-dimensional

Discrete Cosine Transform
(2D-DCT).  This is the primary topic of this lesson. 
In Part 1 of this lesson, I taught you how to use the forward 2D-DCT to
compute and display the frequency spectrum of an image.  I also taught you how
to apply the inverse 2D-DCT to the spectral data to reconstruct a replica
of the original image.

In this part of the lesson, I will teach you how to sub-divide the image before
applying the 2D-DCT in a manner similar to the way it is done in the JPEG
image compression algorithm.  I will also discuss some of the theory behind
and some of the reasons for such sub division

A third central component of the JPEG image compression algorithm is
selective spectral re-quantization.  This will be the primary topic of a future
lesson.

In order to understand JPEG …

In order to understand JPEG image compression, you must understand Huffman
encoding, the 2D-DCT, image sub-division,
selective spectral re-quantization, and perhaps some other topics as well.  I
plan to teach you about the different components of JPEG in separate lessons,
and then to provide a lesson that teaches you how they work together to produce
"the most common format used
for storing and transmitting photographs on the World Wide Web.
"

Viewing tip

You may find it useful to open another copy of this lesson in a
separate browser window.  That will make it easier for you to
scroll back
and forth among the different listings and figures while you are
reading
about them.

Supplementary material

I recommend that you also study the other lessons in my extensive
collection of online Java tutorials.  You will find those lessons
published
at Gamelan.com
However, as of the date of this writing, Gamelan doesn’t maintain a
consolidated index of my Java tutorial lessons, and sometimes they are
difficult to locate there.  You will find a consolidated index at www.DickBaldwin.com.

In preparation for understanding the material in this lesson, I recommend that you also study the lessons referred to in the
References section.

General Background Information

In earlier lessons, I have explained that the JPEG image compression
algorithm transforms the original image into the frequency domain using a
2D-DCT.  The primary purpose of the transformation is to transform the
information into a form that is more amenable to compression than is the form of
the original image.

In Part 1 of this lesson, I explained that rather than to perform the
2D-DCT on the entire image, the JPEG image compression algorithm sub-divides the
image into 8×8 blocks of pixels and performs the 2D-DCT on each block
independently.  However, I didn’t tell you why that is done.

I can’t tell you all of the reasons that the members of the
Joint Photographic Experts Group
decided to do that, but I can tell you that one of the primary reasons probably
had to do with speed.  Sub-dividing the image into a set of smaller
contiguous images and processing them independently can improve the processing
speed significantly in two different ways:

  • Reducing the total number of multiply-add operations (MADs)
    required to perform the transform.
  • Eliminating the requirement to evaluate the cosine of many different
    arguments.

Reducing the total number of MADs

If an image is sub-divided into a contiguous set of smaller images and the
2D-DCT is performed on each of the smaller images independently of the others, a
significant reduction in the total number of MADs can be achieved relative to
the number of MADs required to transform the original image.

Reduction by the square root of the ratio

For example, if the dimensions of the larger image are an even multiple of
the dimensions of the smaller image, the total number of MADs required to
sub-divide and then transform is reduced by the square root of the ratio of the
number of pixels in the large image to the number of pixels in the small image.

(If the dimensions of the large image are not an even multiple of the
dimensions of small image, it is necessary to expand the dimensions of the
large image to force it to be an even multiple.  This can reduce the
gain slightly, but the gain can still be significant.)

A numeric example

For example, if a square image having 320 pixels on each side is sub-divided
into 1600 small images having 8 pixels on each side, the total number of MADs
required to transform the 1600 small images will be a factor of 40 less than the
total number of MADs required to transform the large image.

(According to my calculations, 196,608,000 MADs are required to
transform all three color planes for a square image that is 320 pixels on
each side.  By contrast, if that image is sub-divided into square
images that are 8 pixels on each side, only 4,915,200 MADs are required to
transform all of the small images.  This reduces the computational
effort by a factor of 40, which is very significant.  Furthermore, the
gain increases as the ratio of the size of the large image to the small
image becomes even larger.)

Eliminating the requirement to evaluate the cosine
function

If you write a program to perform a 2D-DCT on an image of any arbitrary size,
you must repetitively evaluate the cosine function millions of times for many
different arguments.  The actual arguments that must be used in the
evaluation of the cosine function depend on the dimensions of the image.

On the other hand, if you write a program to perform a 2D-DCT on an
image of a fixed size, you can determine in advance the arguments that must be
used in the evaluation of the cosine function.  This makes it possible to
evaluate the cosine function for that set of arguments in advance, and to code
the cosine values for that set of arguments directly into a lookup table in the
program.  This makes it possible to eliminate the requirement to repeatedly
evaluate the cosine function, substituting a table-lookup operation instead.

The 8×8-pixel image size used by the JPEG image compression algorithm
requires a cosine table containing only 64 values.  The use of a
table-lookup operation as an alternative to actually evaluating a cosine
function should also provide a significant speed improvement.

(The programs that you will see later use table lookup when the size
of the image is 8×8 and evaluates the cosine function for other image
sizes.)

Sub-dividing an image

Consider the pair of images shown in Figure 1.


Figure 1

The image in the bottom panel of Figure 1 was originally the same as the
image in the top panel.  However, I sub-divided the image in the bottom
panel into 8×8 blocks of pixels and purposely modified the color of every pixel
in each block so as to cause the blocks to be visually distinguishable from one
another.  The idea was to enforce the concept that any image can be
sub-divided into smaller images.

Disassembly and reassembly

For example, I could sub-divide a large image into
blocks of pixels of a uniform size and send each block to you as an attachment
to a separate email message.  You could then reassemble the blocks into a replica of the original image provided you
knew the correct location for each block.

The point is that it doesn’t do any harm to sub-divide an image into blocks
of pixels and then to reassemble them later into a replica of the original
image.  If it serves a useful purpose, that is a perfectly good
operation.

Similar to JPEG compression algorithm

This is similar to part of what the JPEG image compression algorithm does. 
It sub-divides the original image into a set of 8×8-pixel blocks and transforms
each block independently of all the other blocks.  Then it modifies each
block of spectral data using selective re-quantization to make it more suitable
for compression.  The transformed and modified spectral data is then
compressed.

A lossy algorithm

Later, the data is uncompressed.  An inverse transform is performed on
each uncompressed spectral block, creating a lossy replica of the original image
block.  The replicas of each image block are then reassembled into a lossy
replica of the original image.  The lossy nature of the algorithm
apparently occurs mainly at the stage where the spectral data blocks are
modified through selective re-quantization to make them more suitable for
compression.

Two different programs

I will present and explain two different programs in this lesson.  The
first program, named ImgMod35A makes it possible for a user to sub-divide
an image into blocks of a user-specified size, and to perform a forward 2D-DCT
on each block.  The frequency spectra of the blocks are then normalized
to make them suitable for being displayed as ordinary images, and the normalized
spectra are displayed in an image format.

The bottom panel in Figure 2 shows the individual 8×8
normalized frequency spectra that represent the top image in
Figure 2.


Figure 2

The image in the bottom panel of Figure 3 was produced
by performing an inverse 2D-DCT on the 8×8 spectral blocks shown in the bottom
panel of Figure 2 and reassembling the resulting
8×8-pixel image blocks into the full image.  As you can see, the result is a very good
replica of the original image shown in the top panel of Figure 3.

(Note, however, that the individual 8×8 spectral blocks were not
modified through selective re-quantization as is the case with JPEG
compression.  Selective re-quantization of the spectral data will be
the subject of a future lesson.)

Preview

ImgMod35a

The first program that I will present and explain in this lesson is named
ImgMod35a
.  This program sub-divides an image into square blocks of pixels and performs a
forward DCT on each block producing and displaying square blocks of spectral
data.  The size of the blocks is specified by entering the block size
into the text field shown in Figure 4 and pressing the Replot button
shown at the bottom of Figure 5.

Processing the color planes

Each color plane is individually processed.  The program performs a
forward 2D-DCT on each color plane converting each of the three color planes
into spectral planes.  The three spectral planes are normalized so as to
make them suitable for being displayed as standard image data.  The
normalization includes transformation of the spectral data to log base 10
(scaled decibels)
and
scaling to cause the values to fall between 0 and 255 inclusive.

Optimized for 8×8 block size

This program can handle any block size from one pixel per block up to the size of the original image. 
However, it is optimized for block sizes of 8×8 pixels.  When the block
size is 8×8 pixels, the program uses an 8×8 cosine lookup table instead of
computing the cosine value every time it is needed.  This should cause the
program to run faster than would otherwise be the case if it were necessary to
compute the cosine value every time that it is needed.

Instructions for
running the program

This program class is designed to be driven by the class named ImgMod02a
Enter the following at the command line to run this program:

java ImgMod02a ImgMod35a ImageFileName

where ImageFileName is the name of a .gif or .jpg file, including the
extension.

When the user presses the Replot button, the process is repeated using
the value in the text field of Figure 4 for the block size.  The new results are displayed
in the format shown in Figure 5.

Class files required

This
program requires access to the following class files plus some inner classes
that are defined inside these classes:

  • ImgIntfc02.class
  • ImgMod02a.class
  • ImgMod35a.class
  • ForwardDCT02.class

The source code for ImgMod02a and ImgIntfc02 can be found in
the earlier lessons entitled
Processing
Image Pixels Using Java: Controlling Contrast and Brightness
and
Processing Image
Pixels using Java, Getting Started
.

The source code for ImgMod35a is provided in Listing 17.  The
source code for ForwardDct02 is provided in Listing 18.

ImgMod35

The second program that I will present and explain in this lesson is named
ImgMod35
. This program performs a forward 2D-DCT on an image converting the
three color planes into spectral planes.  Then it performs an inverse
2D-DCT on the three spectral planes converting them back into image color
planes.  Then the original image and the reconstructed image are both
displayed in the format shown in Figure 3.

No modification to the spectral data

Nothing is done to the spectral planes following the forward DCT and before
the inverse DCT as is the case in JPEG compression.  However, additional processing, such as re-quantization
and compression, followed by decompression could be inserted at that point.

Update to an earlier program

This is an update to the program named ImgMod34 that was explained in
Part
1
of this lesson.  This update sub-divides the image into blocks of
8×8-pixels and performs the forward 2D-DCT on each block producing 8×8 blocks of
spectral coefficient data.  Then it performs an inverse 2D-DCT on each of
the 8×8 spectral blocks, producing replicas of the original the 8×8 pixel
blocks.

A composite of all the reconstructed 8×8-pixel blocks is created to produce a
replica of the original image.

Zero padding at the edges

Zero padding is applied to the right and bottom edges of the image to force
each dimension of the image to be a multiple of 8 pixels.  This padding is
trimmed from the resulting composite image before the processed composite image
is returned to the calling method.  This process doesn’t appear to have a
detrimental impact on the quality of the image at the edges.

Block structure can be shown

For illustration purposes only, the method named inverseXform8x8Plane
contains a statement that can be activated to cause the 8×8 block structure of
the entire process to become visible in the final image as shown in
Figure 1.  This feature should be disabled by
default because it badly corrupts the visual quality of the image when it is
enabled.

Improved speed

This program is significantly faster than the program named
ImgMod034
that was presented and explained in
Part 1 of this lesson. 
The program named ImgMod034 does not sub-divide the image into 8×8-pixel
blocks, but rather does the forward and inverse transforms on the entire image. 
This program named ImgMod035 does sub-divide the image into 8×8-pixel
blocks before performing the forward and inverse transforms.  In addition,
it uses an 8×8 cosine lookup table instead of
computing the cosine value every time the cosine value is needed.

The use of a lookup table is probably one factor in the speed improvement. 
Another factor is the fact that less arithmetic is required to perform the
transform when the image is sub-divided into blocks and the transforms are
performed on the individual blocks instead of transforming the entire image as a
whole.

Instructions for
running the program

The class named ImgMod035 is designed to be driven by the class named
ImgMod02a.  Enter the following at the command line to
run this
program:

java ImgMod02a ImgMod35 ImageFileName

where ImageFileName is the name of a .gif or .jpg file, including the
extension.

When you click the Replot button shown in Figure 3, the process will be repeated and the
results will be re-displayed.  However, because there is no opportunity for user input after
the program is started, the Replot button is of little value to this program.

Class files required

This
program requires access to the following class files plus some inner classes
that are defined inside these classes:

  • ImgIntfc02.class
  • ImgMod02a.class
  • ImgMod35.class
  • ForwardDCT02.class
  • InverseDCT02.class

The source code for ImgMod02a and ImgIntfc02 can be found in
the earlier lessons entitled
Processing
Image Pixels Using Java: Controlling Contrast and Brightness
and
Processing Image
Pixels using Java, Getting Started
.

The source code for ImgMod35 is provided in Listing 19.  The source
code for ForwardDct02 is provided in Listing 18, and the source code for
InverseDCT02 is provided in Listing 20.

Program testing

All of the programs discussed in this document were tested
using J2SE 5.0 and WinXP.

Discussion

Experimental results for ImgMod35a

Before getting into the details of the code, I want to show you some
experimental results.  I will begin with experimental results for the
program named ImgMod35a.

The display format

The program named ImgMod35a displays results in the format shown in
Figure 2.  The top panel in
Figure 2
shows the original image.  The bottom panel in
Figure 2 shows the set of contiguous two-dimensional
spectra produced by applying the 2D-DCT individually to contiguous 8×8-pixel
blocks from the original image, (as identified by the blocks in the bottom panel in
Figure 1)
.

The spectral origin

The value of the spectrum at a frequency of zero appears at the upper-left
corner of each two-dimensional spectral block with higher-frequency components
appearing to the right and down from that corner.  The energy at a
frequency of zero is often the highest point in
the spectrum (represented by a bright color in the display).  Therefore, most of the bright dots in
Figure 2
correspond to the upper-left corners of individual 2D-DCT spectral
blocks.

The user interface

The initial block size

When the program first starts running, the text field shown in Figure 4 is initialized with a value of 8.  This causes the program to sub-divide the image into
8×8-pixel blocks (as indicated by the bottom panel in
Figure 1
)
and to compute and display the 2D-DCT for each of the
8×8-pixel blocks as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 5.


Figure 5

As mentioned earlier, most of the bright dots in the bottom panel of Figure 5
indicate the upper-left corners of individual 8×8 2D-DCT spectral blocks.

Re-running with a different block size

After startup, whenever the Replot button in Figure 5 is pressed, the
process is rerun using the current value in the text field of Figure 4 to
specify the size of the blocks.  For example, changing the value in the
text field to 20 and pressing the Replot button produces the output shown
in Figure 6.


Figure 6

If you compare Figure 6 with Figure 5, you will see that each individual
spectrum in the bottom panel of Figure 6 is 2.5 times larger than the size of
the individual spectra in Figure 5.

Nothing magic about an 8×8 block size

As near as I have been able to determine, there was nothing magic about the
selection of a block size of 8×8 pixels for the JPEG image compression
algorithm.  The process would probably work for just about any block size
as long as it is large enough to satisfy the data compression objectives.

Smaller blocks mean more speed

However,
as I explained earlier, the speed of the process can be improved by reducing the
block size.    Therefore, the members of the JPEG design
committee were probably looking for the smallest block size that would
do the job insofar as compression and quality of results is concerned, and they settled on a block size of
8×8 to meet that criterion.

(The compression algorithm that is used depends on being able to
identify and to modify high-frequency components in the 2D-DCT spectrum. 
Therefore, the spectral block must be large enough to distinguish between
low-frequency and high-frequency components.  An 8×8 spectral block
provides eight spectral samples between zero and the
Nyquist folding
frequency.)

What are we seeing in Figure 6?

It is good to remember what we are actually seeing in Figure 6.  Each individual
20×20 spectral block in Figure 6 does not represent the true wave-number spectrum of
the corresponding block of 20×20 pixels.  Rather, each 20×20 spectral block represents
the true wave-number spectrum of a modified version of the 20×20 block of
pixels.  As I explained in
Part 1 of this lesson, each 20×20 block of pixels is implicitly extended
to the left and above the origin (at the upper-left corner of the block) producing
a new image that is symmetrical about the origin and four times as large.

(This symmetrical extension eliminates the requirement to perform
complex arithmetic when computing the transform.  It also modifies the
results relative to the true wave-number spectrum of the block.  In
other words, the spectral blocks shown in Figure 6 are not true wave-number
spectra of the original blocks of pixels.)

A true wave-number spectrum is not needed

However, the members of the JPEG committee weren’t necessarily looking to
compute the true wave-number spectrum of the block of image pixels.  Rather, they were
simply looking for a transformation that would accomplish their purpose and one
that is economical to compute.  They
apparently concluded that the Discrete Cosine Transform meets that criterion.

(If they had wanted the true wave number spectrum of the block, they
would probably have used the Fourier transform instead of the Discrete
Cosine Transform.)

Why choose the Discrete Cosine Transform?

The 2D-DCT is simple and easy to compute.  That was probably an important
consideration in the original design of the JPEG image compression algorithm.

The 2D-DCT is reversible, meaning that computing the forward and inverse 2D-DCT
on a block of pixels produces a very good replica of the original block of
pixels.  That is an absolute requirement of the algorithm.

And probably most important, the results of the 2D-DCT contribute greatly to
the compressibility of the image data.

How does it contribute to compressibility?

Somewhere along the way, someone determined that you can significantly corrupt
the values of the higher-frequency spectral components resulting from the 2D-DCT
of an image block and the image that results from performing an inverse 2D-DCT
on the corrupted spectral data will still produce an acceptable, but not perfect
replica of the original image block.

The JPEG committee determined that corrupting the higher-frequency spectral
components through selective re-quantization would make the data more
compressible while still producing acceptable results when an inverse 2D-DCT is
performed on the corrupted spectral data.

(As mentioned earlier, selective re-quantization will be the topic of a future lesson.)

The bottom line is that the 2D-DCT serves the
purpose well

Although the 2D-DCT does not produce the true wave-number spectrum of
the original image block, it does a very good job of satisfying the need to
compress the image for transport and storage while still producing acceptable
results when the image is reconstructed from the compressed spectral data.

An extreme case

I want to show you the results of two more experimental cases using
ImgMod35a
to help you better
understand what’s going on here.  Figure 7 shows the result of setting the
block size to 1 and re-computing and displaying the spectral results in the
bottom panel.


Figure 7

Not a reconstructed image

The bottom panel in Figure 7 does not show a reconstructed version of the
original image produced by performing an inverse 2D-DCT on the spectral data as
was the case in Figure 3.  Rather, the bottom panel of Figure 7 shows the
spectral data just like Figure 6, Figure 5, and Figure 2.

Why does the spectral data look so much like the original image?

When the original
image is sub-divided into 1×1-pixel blocks, each 2D-DCT is performed on a single
image pixel producing a 1×1 spectral block.  When only one spectral value
is computed, it is the value at a frequency of zero.

Whenever the spectral value at a frequency of zero is computed, (regardless of the
size of the image block)
, the result is simply the (possibly scaled) average of all the pixel
values.  When there is only one pixel value involved, the average is simply
the (possibly scaled) value of the pixel.

A scaled version of the pixel value

Thus, each of the 1×1 spectral values in Figure 7 is simply a scaled version of the corresponding pixel in the 1×1 pixel block. 
Displaying those spectral values reproduces the original image.

(However,
the scaling that has been applied to the spectral values through the
normalization process causes the colors to be washed out as shown in
the bottom image of Figure 7.  The normalization process includes a log
base 10 transformation that tends to flatten the spectral surface.)

Including the entire image in the block

In contrast, Figure 8 shows the result of setting the block size to the
height of the image, causing the entire image to be included in one block of
pixels.


Figure 8

As a result, the bottom panel in Figure 8 shows the 2D-DCT spectrum for the
entire image taken as a whole.

Spectral energy near the origin

Most of the spectral energy is concentrated in the lighter portions of the
spectrum near the origin in the upper-left corner.  Although it isn’t
obvious, (due to the adjacent white background), there is probably a very bright
dot at the origin of the spectrum in Figure 8.

(Each of the individual spectra shown in Figure 7, Figure 6, Figure 5,
and Figure 2 are simply smaller versions of Figure 8 where each of the
individual spectra represent the information in a small block
of corresponding image pixels.)

Resemblance to the original image

The bottom panel in Figure 8 doesn’t look anything like the original image
because it represents the information for the entire image in a different form. 

Whereas the bottom panel of Figure 5 shows the individual 8×8 spectral
blocks, the bottom panel of Figure 9 shows the results of performing an inverse
2D-DCT on each of the 8×8 spectral blocks and using the resulting 8×8 image
blocks to reconstruct the original image.  As you can see, the
reconstructed image is a very good replica of the original image.

Sample Code

The Program Named ImgMod35a

I will discuss this program in fragments.  The first fragment, shown in
Listing 1, shows the beginning of the class definition along with the
declaration and initialization of a couple of instance variables.

class ImgMod35a extends Frame implements ImgIntfc02{
  
  TextField subSizeField = new TextField("8");
  Label instructions = new Label(
                  "Enter sub-image size and click Replot");

Listing 1

The two instance variables provide the label and the text field shown in
Figure 4.

The TextField variable

This text field supports the interactive nature of the program.  The user can enter a value into the
text field and then click the Replot button shown at the bottom of
Figure
5
.  This causes the image to be broken down into square blocks of pixels where the number of pixels on each side
of the block matches the value entered into the text field by the user.  Then the image
is processed one block at a time producing spectral results as shown
in Figure 6.

The interface named ImgIntfc02

Note that the class implements the interface named ImgIntfc02. This is
necessary to support the graphic display aspects of the program as explained in
the earlier lesson entitled
Processing
Image Pixels using Java, Getting Started
.

The constructor

The constructor for the class is shown in its entirety in
Listing 2.

  ImgMod35a(){//constructor
    add(instructions,BorderLayout.CENTER);
    add(subSizeField,BorderLayout.SOUTH);
    setTitle("Copyright 2006, R.G.Baldwin");
    setBounds(400,0,250,75);
    setVisible(true);
  }//end constructor

Listing 2

The code in Listing 2 is straightforward and shouldn’t require further
explanation.

The processImg method

Because this class implements the ImgIntfc02 interface, and because
that interface declares the processImg method, this class must define the
method named processImg.

The signature for the method named processImg is shown in
Listing 3.

  public int[][][] processImg(int[][][] threeDPix,
                              int imgRows,
                              int imgCols){

Listing 3

As mentioned above, this method is required by ImgIntfc02.  As explained in the
earlier lesson entitled
Processing
Image Pixels using Java, Getting Started
, the method is called at the beginning of
the run and each time thereafter that the user clicks the Replot button shown at
the bottom of Figure 6.

The block size

Also as explained earlier, the image is broken down into square blocks for
processing.  The
dimensions of the blocks are specified by the value stored in the variable named
imgSubSize
shown in Listing 4.

    int imgSubSize = Integer.parseInt(
                                   subSizeField.getText());

Listing 4

Straightforward code from an earlier lesson

The comments in Listing 5, in conjunction with information provided in the
earlier
lesson, should suffice to explain the code in
Listing 5.

    //Create an empty output array of the same size as the
    // incoming array.
    int[][][] output = new int[imgRows][imgCols][4];

    //Make a working copy of the 3D pixel array as type
    // double to avoid making permanent changes to the
    // original image data.  Also, all processing will be
    // performed as type double.
    double[][][] working3D = copyToDouble(threeDPix);
    
    //The following code can be enabled to set any of the
    // three colors to black, thus removing them from the
    // output.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
//        working3D[row][col][1] = 0;//Red
//        working3D[row][col][2] = 0;//Green
//        working3D[row][col][3] = 0;//Blue
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop

Listing 5

Performing a forward DCT

Listing 6 begins the process of extracting and performing a forward DCT on the red color plane
of the image, one block at a time.

    double[][] redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);

Listing 6

The extractPlane method

Listing 6 invokes the method named extractPlane to extract the red
color plane from the image.  The purpose of the extractPlane method is to extract a color plane from the
double version of an image and to return it as a 2D array of type double
The method is straightforward and shouldn’t require further explanation. 
It can be viewed in its entirety in Listing 17 near the end of the lesson.

The expandPlane method

Listing 7 invokes the expandPlane method to expand the plane such that both dimensions are a multiple of
imgSubSize.

    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane,imgSubSize);

Listing 7

The extra rows and columns of pixel data (if any) that are required to
cause the dimensions of the plane to be a multiple of imgSubSize are
filled with pixel values of zero.  Otherwise, the expandPlane method
is straightforward and shouldn’t require further explanation.  The method
can be viewed in its entirety in Listing 17 near the end of the lesson.

The forwardXformPlane method

Listing 8 invokes the forwardXformPlane method to perform the forward
DCT on the red plane turning it into a spectral plane where each individual
spectrum stored in the plane is a square block with dimensions of
imgSubSize
.

    forwardXformPlane(redPlane,imgSubSize);

Listing 8

Ultimately, the spectra for all three color planes are combined and displayed
in an image format as shown in Figure 6.  To see the spectra for the
individual color planes, you can disable all but one color plane as instructed
by the comments in Listing 5.

At this point, I will set the processImg method aside for awhile and
discuss the forwardXformPlane method.  Before doing that, however, I
want to review some of the concepts that you learned about in
Part 1 of this
lesson.

A separable transform

As was explained in
Part 1 of this lesson, one of the significant attributes
of the two-dimensional Discrete Cosine Transform (2D-DCT) is that it is

separable
.  What this means in practice is that to compute the DCT for a
block in a color plane of a 2D image, you can begin by performing a
one-dimensional
DCT on each row of the block, creating a new 2D structure
where each row of the new structure contains the DCT of the corresponding row of
the block of pixel data.  Then you can perform a one-dimensional DCT on each column of the new
2D structure creating a third 2D structure containing the 2D-DCT of the original
block.

An in-place transform

Also important, at least from a memory utilization viewpoint, is the fact
that you can perform the transforms "in-place" using the original color
plane for intermediate and final data storage without a requirement to allocate
memory for the new structures.

Don’t need a new DCT program

What this means for me is that I don’t need to develop a new DCT program to
handle the 2D case.  Rather, I could perform all the necessary DCT
transforms that I need using the static one-dimensional forward DCT method named
transform
belonging to the class named ForwardDCT01.  I developed and explained
that class in the earlier lesson entitled
Understanding the Discrete
Cosine Transform in Java
.

New version for optimization

Note however that I did develop an optimized version
of the transform method that is optimized for speed for the case where
the image is divided into 8×8 blocks of pixels prior to performing the
transform.

The forwardXformPlane method

The forwardXformPlane method is shown in its entirety in
Listing 9.

  void forwardXformPlane(double[][] plane,int imgSubSize){
    int pixRows = plane.length;
    int pixCols = plane[0].length;
    //Loop on rows of blocks
    for(int segRow = 0;segRow < pixRows/imgSubSize;
                                                 segRow++){
      //Loop on cols of blocks
      for(int segCol = 0;segCol < pixCols/imgSubSize;
                                                 segCol++){
        double[][] theSubPlane = 
               getSubPlane(plane,segRow,segCol,imgSubSize);
        forwardXformSubPlane(theSubPlane,imgSubSize);
        
        insertSubPlane(plane,
                       theSubPlane,
                       segRow,
                       segCol,
                       imgSubSize);
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end forwardXformPlane

Listing 9

The forwardXformPlane method breaks a double color plane down
into square blocks of size imgSubSize and performs a forward DCT on each
block.  Then it assembles the resulting spectral data blocks into a
spectral plane.

(The method assumes that the dimensions of the color plane
are multiples of imgSubSize.)

Invokes three methods in succession

The code in Listing 9 does its job by invoking the following three methods in
succession inside a nested for loop:

  • getSubPlane – Extracts and returns a square block of size
    imgSubSize
    from a double 2D plane
  • forwardXformSubPlane – performs a forward DCT on a square block
    of pixels of size imgSubSize received as an incoming parameter.
  • insertSubPlane – Inserts a square block of size imgSubSize
    into a double 2D plane

The first and third methods in the above list are completely straightforward
and shouldn’t require any explanation beyond the comments contained in the code. 
You can view the code for those methods in Listing 17 near the end of the
lesson.

The method named forwardXformSubPlane

The method named forwardXformSubPlane, which performs a forward DCT on a square block of pixels of size imgSubSize, is shown in its entirety in
Listing 10.

  void forwardXformSubPlane(double[][] theSubPlane,
                            int imgSubSize){
    
    int imgRows = imgSubSize;
    int imgCols = imgSubSize;
    
    //Extract each row from the block and perform
    // a forward DCT on the row. Then insert the
    // transformed row back into the block.  At that point,
    // the row no longer contains color pixel data, but
    // has been transformed into a row of spectral data.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      double[] theRow = extractRow(theSubPlane,row);
      
      double[] theXform = new double[theRow.length];
      //Perform the forward transform.
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theRow,theXform);
      
      //Insert the transformed row back into the block.
      insertRow(theSubPlane,theXform,row);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The block now contains the results of doing the
    // horizontal DCT one row at a time.  The block no
    // longer contains color pixel data.  Rather, it
    // contains spectral data for the horizontal dimension
    // only.
    
    //Extract each column from the block and perform a
    // forward DCT on the column. Then insert the
    // transformed column back into the block.
    for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
      double[] theCol = extractCol(theSubPlane,col);

      double[] theXform = new double[theCol.length];
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theCol,theXform);

      insertCol(theSubPlane,theXform,col);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The square block of size imgSubSize has now been
    // converted into a square block of spectral
    // coefficient data of the same size.

  }//end forwardXformSubPlane

Listing 10

Very similar to a method from Part 1

The method named forwardXformSubPlane is very similar to the method named
processPlane that I explained in
Part 1 of this lesson. 
Therefore, an explanation should not be required in this lesson.

The main difference

The main difference between the method named forwardXformSubPlane in
Listing 10 and the method named
processPlane in
Part 1 of this lesson has to do with the method that is
called to perform the actual DCT.

Optimized for speed

The method in the
earlier lesson calls the transform method in the class named
ForwardDCT01
, whereas the method in Listing 10 calls the transform
method in the class named ForwardDCT02.  I will explain the
difference between the two later.  For now, suffice it to say that the
latter method was optimized for speed for the case where the block size is 8×8
pixels.

Back to the processImg method

Returning once again to the explanation of the processImg method, and
picking up where Listing 8 left off, Listing 11 invokes the normalize
method to normalize the data in the 2D double plane to make it compatible with
being displayed as an image plane.

    normalize(redPlane);

Listing 11

The normalize method

Normalizing data for display purposes is almost always problematic.  The
display will often look very different depending on how you perform the
normalization.  The approach to normalization used in the normalize
method performs the following
steps in order:

  1. All negative values are converted to positive values.  This is
    equivalent to the computation of the magnitude of the spectrum for purely
    real data.
  2. All values are converted to log base 10 (scaled decibels)
    to preserve the dynamic range of the plotting system.  All negative
    results (if any) are set to 0.
  3. All values that are below X-percent of the maximum value are
    set to X-percent of the maximum value producing a floor for the values where
    the value of X is determined by a hard-coded scale factor.
  4. All values are biased (slid toward 0) so that the minimum
    value (the floor) becomes 0.
  5. All values are scaled so that the maximum value becomes 255.  As a
    result, all values range from 0 as a minimum to 255 as a maximum.

Once the normalizing rationale has been established, the code to establish
the normalization is relatively straightforward.  You can view the
normalize
method in its entirety in Listing 17.

The insertPlane method

Listing 12 invokes the insertPlane method to insert the spectral plane
back into the 3D array

    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);

Listing 12

The insertPlane method also trims off any extra rows and columns
created by expanding the dimensions to a multiple of imgSubSize earlier
in Listing 7.  The code in the insertPlane method is
straightforward.  The method can be viewed in its entirety in Listing 17.

Process green and blue color planes

Listing 13 executes essentially the same code as that explained above to
extract and perform forward Discrete Cosine Transforms on the green and blue
color planes.

    double[][] greenPlane = extractPlane(working3D,2);
    greenPlane = expandPlane(greenPlane,imgSubSize);
    forwardXformPlane(greenPlane,imgSubSize);
    normalize(greenPlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,greenPlane,2);

    double[][] bluePlane = extractPlane(working3D,3);
    bluePlane = expandPlane(bluePlane,imgSubSize);
    forwardXformPlane(bluePlane,imgSubSize);
    normalize(bluePlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,bluePlane,3);

Listing 13

All three color planes have been transformed

At this point, all three color planes have now been transformed into spectral
planes where each spectral plane is composed of a potentially large number of
contiguous square spectral data blocks of size imgSubSize.

Convert to type int and return

Listing 14 invokes the copyToInt method to convert the image color
planes to type int.  Then Listing 14 returns the array of pixel data
to the calling method where it is displayed as shown in the bottom panel
of Figure 5.

    output = copyToInt(working3D);
    return output;
  }//end processImg method

Listing 14

You can view the copyToInt method, along with a few other utility
methods not discussed above in Listing 17.

The Class Named ForwardDCT02

As mentioned earlier, whereas the program in
Part 1 of this lesson used the
transform
method in the class named ForwardDCT01 to perform
the DCT, this program uses the transform method of
the class named ForwardDCT02 to perform the DCT.

The static method named transform performs a forward DCT on an incoming series and returns the DCT spectrum.

Optimized for 8×8 blocks

The transform method of the ForwardDCT01 class is a general
purpose version that works for images of different sizes.  The transform
method of the ForwardDCT02 class will also work with images of any size,
but it is optimized for use with images with a size of 8×8 pixels.

Uses a cosine lookup table

When transforming an 8×8-pixel image, the transform method of the
ForwardDCT02
class uses an 8×8 cosine lookup table instead of calling the
cos function.  If the image size is anything other than 8×8 pixels, the
method simply calls the cosine function during each
iteration.

It is probably faster to use the lookup table than it is to call the cosine
function every time a cosine value is needed.

The class named ForwardDCT02 is shown in its entirety in
Listing
18
near the end of this lesson.  The manner in which the cosine table is
created and then used is well documented.  If you understood the
transform
method of the ForwardDCT01 class in
Part 1 of this
lesson, you should have no difficulty understanding the transform method
of the class named ForwardDCT02.

The Program Named ImgMod35

This program performs a forward DCT on an image converting the three color
planes into spectral planes.  Then it performs an inverse DCT on the three
spectral planes converting them back into image color planes.

A rather detailed description of the program was provided earlier in this
lesson.  I will refer you back to that description
and will not repeat that description here.

Note that this version of the program is significantly faster than the
version named ImgMod034 from
Part 1 of this lesson.  The reasons for the
improvement in speed were also explained earlier.

Experimental results

Figure 3 and Figure 9 show examples of the results produced by this program.

Similar code

Much of the code in this program is the same as, or very similar to the code
in the program named ImgMod35a, which I explained earlier.  Therefore,
I won’t repeat the explanation for that code.  I will only explain the code
that is significantly different.  The code that I will explain
will be explained in fragments.  You can view a listing of the entire
program in Listing 19 near the end of the lesson.

The first interesting code fragment begins in Listing 15, which extracts the
red color plane and performs a forward DCT on that plane.

    double[][] redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);
    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane);
    forwardXformPlane(redPlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);

Listing 15

The expandPlane method

Having extracted the red color plane, Listing 15 invokes the expandPlane
method to expand the plane such that both dimensions are an even multiple of 8
pixels.

(Unlike the expandPlane method in the previous program named
ImgMod35a
, the expandPlane method in this program does not accept
an incoming parameter that specifies the block size.  Rather, the block
size is fixed at 8×8 pixels in this program. )

The forwardXformPlane method

Then Figure 15 invokes the forwardXformPlane method to perform a
forward DCT on the red plane turning it into a spectral plane where each individual spectrum stored in the plane is an 8×8 square.

The method named forwardXformPlane breaks a double color plane down into
8×8-pixel blocks and performs a forward DCT on each block.  Then it
assembles the resulting spectral data blocks into a spectral plane. The method
is hard-coded to assume that the dimensions of the color plane are multiples of
8.

The insertPlane method

Finally, Listing 15 invokes the insertPlane method to insert the spectral plane back into the 3D array.  This method also trims off any extra rows and columns
that may have been created by expanding the dimensions to a multiple of 8.

Process the green and blue color planes

Then the program performs essentially the same operations on the green and
blue color planes.  Once that is completed, all three color planes have been transformed into spectral planes where each spectral plane is composed of a
potentially large number of contiguous 8×8 spectral data blocks.

(Note that because there is no requirement to display the spectral
planes, they are not normalized to values between 0 and 255 as is the case
with the program named ImgMod035a.)

Transform back into image color planes

Following this, the program transforms the spectral planes back into image color planes. 
The inverse transform on the red spectral plane consists of the four method
calls shown in Listing 16.

    redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);
    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane);
    inverseXformPlane(redPlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);

Listing 16

The process begins by invoking the extractPlane method to extract the
red spectral plane from the 3D array.  This method has been used in
numerous previous lessons and can be found in Listing 19.

Then Listing 16 invokes the expandPlane method to expand the plane
such that both dimensions are an even multiple of 8.  There is nothing new
here.

Then Listing 16 invokes the inverseXformPlane method to perform the
inverse DCT on the red plane.  The only thing new here is that the
inverseXformPlane
method calls a method named inverseXform8x8Plane,
which uses the transform method of the InverseDCT02 class to
perform the inverse transform.

Optimized for 8×8 spectral blocks

This transform method is essentially the same as the transform
method of the class named InverseDCT01, which was explained in
Part 1 of
this lesson, except that the  transform method of the
InverseDCT02
class is optimized for speed when applied to spectra having a
size of 8×8 spectral coefficient values.  Basically, it uses a cosine
lookup table rather than invoking the cos method each time a cosine value
is needed.

A complete listing of the class named InverseDCT02 is provided in
Listing 20 near the end of the lesson.

Finally, Listing 16 invokes the insertPlane method to insert the new
red image plane back into the working 3D array.

Process the green and blue spectral planes

Following this, the program performs essentially the same inverse transform
operations on the green and blue spectral planes to produce the green and blue
image planes.

Then the new image color planes are converted to type int
and returned to the calling method for display as shown in the bottom panel of
Figure 3 and Figure 9.

Run the Program

I encourage you to copy the code from the listings in the section entitled
Complete Program Listings
Compile the code and run it.  Experiment with the code, making
changes, and observing the results of your changes.

For example, you might want to make modifications to the image data prior to
performing the forward transforms and observe the impact of those modifications
on the spectral data.

Similarly, you might want to make modifications to the spectral data prior to
performing the inverse transform, and observe the impact of those modifications
on the resulting images.

See instructions here and
here on how to run the programs.

Whatever you do, have fun and learn as much as you can about the use of the
2D-DCT with image data.

Summary

In Part 1 of this lesson I taught you how to use the forward
two-dimensional Discrete Cosine Transform (2D-DCT) to compute and display
the wave-number spectrum of an image.  I also taught you how to apply the
inverse 2D-DCT to the spectral data to reconstruct and display a replica of the
original image.

In this document (Part 2), I taught you how to sub-divide the image
before applying the forward and inverse 2D-DCTs in a manner similar to the way
it is done in the JPEG image compression algorithm.

I showed that sub-dividing
the image can result in a significant improvement in transform speed while still
preserving the visual quality of the original image.

I also explained some
of the theory behind and some of the reasons for sub-dividing images in that
manner.

What’s Next?

Future lessons in this series will explain the inner workings behind several
data and image compression schemes, including the following:

  • Run-length data encoding
  • GIF image compression
  • JPEG image compression

Along the way, I will probably also branch off and show you how to use the 2D-DCT to create
hidden watermarks on images.

References

General

2440 Understanding the Lempel-Ziv Data Compression Algorithm in Java
2442 Understanding the Huffman Data Compression Algorithm in Java
2444 Understanding the Discrete Cosine Transform in Java
2446 Understanding the 2D Discrete Cosine Transform in Java, Part 1
1468
Plotting Engineering and Scientific Data using Java
1478 Fun
with Java, How and Why Spectral Analysis Works
1482
Spectrum Analysis using Java, Sampling Frequency, Folding Frequency, and the FFT
Algorithm
1483
Spectrum Analysis using Java, Frequency Resolution versus Data Length
1484
Spectrum Analysis using Java, Complex Spectrum and Phase Angle
1485
Spectrum Analysis using Java, Forward and Inverse Transforms, Filtering in the
Frequency Domain
1486 Fun
with Java, Understanding the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Algorithm
1489
Plotting 3D Surfaces using Java
1490 2D
Fourier Transforms using Java
1491 2D
Fourier Transforms using Java, Part 2

Discrete Cosine Transform equations


Discrete cosine transform
– Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Data Analysis Briefbook –
Discrete Cosine
Transform

National Taiwan University
DSP Group

Discrete Cosine Transform

Complete Program Listings


Complete listings of the programs discussed in this lesson are shown in
Listing
17
through Listing 20 below.
 

/*File ImgMod35a.java
Copyright 2005, R.G.Baldwin

This is a modification of ImgMod35 to normalize and display
wave-number spectra instead of constructing a replica of
the original image.  In addition, whereas ImgMod35 uses a
fixed block size of 8x8 pixels, this program allows the 
user to specify the block size.

This program performs a forward DCT on an image converting 
the three color planes into spectral planes.  The three
spectral planes are normalized so as to make them suitable
for being displayed as standard image data.  The 
normalization includes transformation of the spectral data
to log base 10 and scaling to cause the values to fall 
between 0 and 255 inclusive.

This program breaks the image down into square blocks of 
pixels and performs a forward DCT on each block producing 
and displaying square blocks of spectral data.  The size of
the blocks is specified by the user by entering the size 
into a text field and pressing the Replot button.

Each color plane is individually processed.

Note that for small block sizes, this version of the 
program is significantly faster than the version named 
ImgMod034a, which does not break the image down into 
blocks, but rather does the forward DCT on the entire 
image.

This program can handle any block size up to the size of 
the original image.  However, it is optimized for block 
sizes of 8x8 pixels.  When the block size is 8x8 pixels, 
the program uses an 8x8 cosine lookup table instead of 
computing the cosine value every time it is needed.  This 
should cause the program to run faster.

The class is designed to be driven by the class named 
ImgMod02a.  

Enter the following at the command line to run this 
program:

java ImgMod02a ImgMod35a ImageFileName

where ImageFileName is the name of a .gif or .jpg file, 
including the extension.

When the user clicks the Replot button, the process is 
repeated using the potentially new value for block size
and the new results are displayed.

This program requires access to the following class files 
plus some inner classes that are defined inside the
following classes:

ImgIntfc02.class
ImgMod02a.class
ImgMod35a.class
ForwardDCT02.class

Tested using J2SE 5.0 and WinXP.  J2SE 5.0 or later is 
required due to the use of static imports.
**********************************************************/
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.*;
import static java.lang.Math.*;

class ImgMod35a extends Frame implements ImgIntfc02{
  
  //The user can enter a value into the following field and
  // then click the Replot button.  The image will be
  // broken down into square blocks of pixels where the
  // number of pixels on each side matches the value
  // entered by the user.  Then the image will be 
  // processed one block at a time.
  TextField subSizeField = new TextField("8");
  Label instructions = new Label(
                  "Enter sub-image size and click Replot");
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  ImgMod35a(){//constructor
    add(instructions,BorderLayout.CENTER);
    add(subSizeField,BorderLayout.SOUTH);
    setTitle("Copyright 2006, R.G.Baldwin");
    setBounds(400,0,250,75);
    setVisible(true);
  }//end constructor
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
                                        
  //This method is required by ImgIntfc02.  It is called at
  // the beginning of the run and each time thereafter that
  // the user clicks the Replot button on the Frame
  // containing the images.
  public int[][][] processImg(int[][][] threeDPix,
                              int imgRows,
                              int imgCols){

    //The image is broken down into square blocks where the
    // following value specifies the dimensions of the
    // blocks.
    int imgSubSize = Integer.parseInt(
                                   subSizeField.getText());

    //Create an empty output array of the same size as the
    // incoming array.
    int[][][] output = new int[imgRows][imgCols][4];

    //Make a working copy of the 3D pixel array as type
    // double to avoid making permanent changes to the
    // original image data.  Also, all processing will be
    // performed as type double.
    double[][][] working3D = copyToDouble(threeDPix);
    
    //The following code can be enabled to set any of the
    // three colors to black, thus removing them from the
    // output.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
//        working3D[row][col][1] = 0;//Red
//        working3D[row][col][2] = 0;//Green
//        working3D[row][col][3] = 0;//Blue
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    
    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the red color plane,
    // one block at a time.
    double[][] redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);
    //Expand the plane such that both dimensions are a
    // multiple of imgSubSize.
    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane,imgSubSize);
    //Do the forward DCT on the redPlane turning it into a
    // spectral plane where each individual spectrum
    // stored in the plane is a square block with
    // dimensions of imgSubSize.
    //To see the individual spectra, disable all but one
    // color plane above.
    forwardXformPlane(redPlane,imgSubSize);

    //Normalize the data in a 2D double plane to make it
    // compatible with being displayed as an image plane.
    // See the comments in the normalize method for an
    // explanation as to how the normalization is
    // accomplished.
    normalize(redPlane);
    
    //Insert the spectral plane back into the 3D array. 
    // This method also trims off any extra rows and
    // columns created by expanding the dimensions to a
    // multiple of imgSubSize.
    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);

    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the green color
    // plane using the same procedure used for the red
    // plane above.
    double[][] greenPlane = extractPlane(working3D,2);
    greenPlane = expandPlane(greenPlane,imgSubSize);
    forwardXformPlane(greenPlane,imgSubSize);
    normalize(greenPlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,greenPlane,2);

    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the blue color plane
    //  using the same procedure used for the red plane
    // above..
    double[][] bluePlane = extractPlane(working3D,3);
    bluePlane = expandPlane(bluePlane,imgSubSize);
    forwardXformPlane(bluePlane,imgSubSize);
    normalize(bluePlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,bluePlane,3);
    
    //All three color planes have now been transformed into
    // spectral planes where each spectral plane is
    // composed of a potentially large number of contiguous
    // square spectral data blocks of size imgSubSize.
    
    //Convert the image color planes to type int and return
    // the array of pixel data to the calling method.
    output = copyToInt(working3D);
    //Return a reference to the output array.
    return output;

  }//end processImg method
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to extract a specified
  // row from a double 2D plane and to return it as a one-
  // dimensional array of type double.
  double[] extractRow(double[][] colorPlane,int row){
    
    int numCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    double[] output = new double[numCols];
    for(int col = 0;col < numCols;col++){
      output[col] = colorPlane[row][col];
    }//end outer loop
    return output;
  }//end extractRow
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to insert a specified
  // row of double data into a double 2D plane.
  void insertRow(double[][] colorPlane,
                 double[] theRow,
                 int row){
    int numCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    double[] output = new double[numCols];
    for(int col = 0;col < numCols;col++){
      colorPlane[row][col] = theRow[col];
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insertRow
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to extract a specified
  // col from a double 2D plane and to return it as a one-
  // dimensional array of type double.
  double[] extractCol(double[][] colorPlane,int col){
    int numRows = colorPlane.length;
    double[] output = new double[numRows];
    for(int row = 0;row < numRows;row++){
      output[row] = colorPlane[row][col];
    }//end outer loop
    return output;
  }//end extractCol
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to insert a specified
  // col of double data into a double 2D color plane.
  void insertCol(double[][] colorPlane,
                 double[] theCol,
                 int col){
    int numRows = colorPlane.length;
    double[] output = new double[numRows];
    for(int row = 0;row < numRows;row++){
      colorPlane[row][col] = theCol[row];
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insertCol
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to extract a color plane
  // from the double version of an image and to return it
  // as a 2D array of type double.
  public double[][] extractPlane(
                              double[][][] threeDPixDouble,
                              int plane){
    
    int numImgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int numImgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    //Create an empty output array of the same
    // size as a single plane in the incoming array of
    // pixels.
    double[][] output =new double[numImgRows][numImgCols];

    //Copy the values from the specified plane to the
    // double array.
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        output[row][col] =
                          threeDPixDouble[row][col][plane];
      }//end loop on col
    }//end loop on row
    return output;
  }//end extractPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to insert a double 2D
  // plane into the double 3D array that represents an
  // image.  This method also trims off any extra rows and
  // columns in the double 2D plane.
  public void insertPlane(double[][][] threeDPixDouble,
                          double[][] colorPlane,
                          int plane){
    
    int numImgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int numImgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    //Copy the values from the incoming color plane to the
    // specified plane in the 3D array.
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        threeDPixDouble[row][col][plane] = 
                                      colorPlane[row][col];
      }//end loop on col
    }//end loop on row
  }//end insertPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //This method copies an int version of a 3D pixel array
  // to an new pixel array of type double.
  double[][][] copyToDouble(int[][][] threeDPix){
    int imgRows = threeDPix.length;
    int imgCols = threeDPix[0].length;
    
    double[][][] new3D = new double[imgRows][imgCols][4];
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
        new3D[row][col][0] = threeDPix[row][col][0];
        new3D[row][col][1] = threeDPix[row][col][1];
        new3D[row][col][2] = threeDPix[row][col][2];
        new3D[row][col][3] = threeDPix[row][col][3];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return new3D;
  }//end copyToDouble
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //This method copies a double version of a 3D pixel array
  // into a new pixel array of type int.
  int[][][] copyToInt(double[][][] threeDPixDouble){
    int imgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int imgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    int[][][] new3D = new int[imgRows][imgCols][4];
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
        new3D[row][col][0] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][0];
        new3D[row][col][1] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][1];
        new3D[row][col][2] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][2];
        new3D[row][col][3] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][3];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return new3D;
  }//end copyToInt
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //Expand a double 2D plane such that both dimensions are
  // a multiple of imgSubSize.
  double[][] expandPlane(double[][] plane,int imgSubSize){
    int rows = plane.length;
    int cols = plane[0].length;
    double[][] output;
    
    int rowsRem = rows%imgSubSize;
    int colsRem = cols%imgSubSize;
    
    if((rowsRem == 0) && (colsRem == 0)){
      //No expansion is required.
      return plane;
    }else{
      //An expansion is required.  Copy the data from the
      // incoming array to a new expanded array, leaving
      // pad values of 0.0 at the right and bottom edges.
      output = new double[rows + (imgSubSize - rowsRem)]
                         [cols + (imgSubSize - colsRem)];
      for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
        for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
          output[row][col] = plane[row][col];
        }//end inner loop
      }//end outer loop
      return output;
    }//end else
  }//end expandPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Extracts and returns a square block of size imgSubSize
  // from a double 2D plane
  double[][] getSubPlane(double[][] colorPlane,
                         int segRow,
                         int segCol,
                         int imgSubSize){
    double[][] theSubPlane = 
                        new double[imgSubSize][imgSubSize];
    for(int bigRow = segRow * imgSubSize,smallRow = 0;
               bigRow < (segRow * imgSubSize + imgSubSize);
                                      bigRow++,smallRow++){
      for(int bigCol = segCol * imgSubSize,smallCol = 0;
                 bigCol < segCol * imgSubSize + imgSubSize;
                                      bigCol++,smallCol++){
        theSubPlane[smallRow][smallCol] = 
                                colorPlane[bigRow][bigCol];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return theSubPlane;
  }//end getSubPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //Inserts square block of size imgSubSize into a double
  // 2D plane
  void insertSubPlane(double[][] colorPlane,
                      double[][] theSubPlane,
                      int segRow,
                      int segCol,
                      int imgSubSize){
    for(int bigRow = segRow * imgSubSize,smallRow = 0;
               bigRow < (segRow * imgSubSize + imgSubSize);
                                      bigRow++,smallRow++){
      for(int bigCol = segCol * imgSubSize,smallCol = 0;
                 bigCol < segCol * imgSubSize + imgSubSize;
                                      bigCol++,smallCol++){
        colorPlane[bigRow][bigCol] = 
                           theSubPlane[smallRow][smallCol];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insertSubPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Breaks a double color plane down into square blocks
  // of size imgSubSize and does a forward DCT xform on
  // each block.
  //Assembles the resulting spectral data blocks into a
  // spectral plane.
  //Assumes that the dimensions of the color plane are
  // multiples of imgSubSize.
  void forwardXformPlane(double[][] plane,int imgSubSize){
    int pixRows = plane.length;
    int pixCols = plane[0].length;
    //Loop on rows of blocks
    for(int segRow = 0;segRow < pixRows/imgSubSize;
                                                 segRow++){
      //Loop on cols of blocks
      for(int segCol = 0;segCol < pixCols/imgSubSize;
                                                 segCol++){
        double[][] theSubPlane = 
               getSubPlane(plane,segRow,segCol,imgSubSize);
        forwardXformSubPlane(theSubPlane,imgSubSize);
        
        insertSubPlane(plane,
                       theSubPlane,
                       segRow,
                       segCol,
                       imgSubSize);
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end forwardXformPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //This method does a forward DCT on a square block of
  // pixels of size imgSubSize received as an incoming
  // parameter.
  void forwardXformSubPlane(double[][] theSubPlane,
                            int imgSubSize){
    
    int imgRows = imgSubSize;
    int imgCols = imgSubSize;
    
    //Extract each row from the block and perform
    // a forward DCT on the row. Then insert the
    // transformed row back into the block.  At that point,
    // the row no longer contains color pixel data, but
    // has been transformed into a row of spectral data.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      double[] theRow = extractRow(theSubPlane,row);
      
      double[] theXform = new double[theRow.length];
      //Perform the forward transform.
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theRow,theXform);
      
      //Insert the transformed row back into the block.
      insertRow(theSubPlane,theXform,row);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The block now contains the results of doing the
    // horizontal DCT one row at a time.  The block no
    // longer contains color pixel data.  Rather, it
    // contains spectral data for the horizontal dimension
    // only.
    
    //Extract each column from the block and perform a
    // forward DCT on the column. Then insert the
    // transformed column back into the block.
    for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
      double[] theCol = extractCol(theSubPlane,col);

      double[] theXform = new double[theCol.length];
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theCol,theXform);

      insertCol(theSubPlane,theXform,col);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The square block of size imgSubSize has now been
    // converted into a square block of spectral
    // coefficient data of the same size.

  }//end forwardXformSubPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //Normalizes the data in a 2D double plane to make it
  // compatible with being displayed as an image plane.
  //First all negative values are converted to positive
  // values.
  //Then all values are converted to log base 10 to
  // preserve the dynamic range of the plotting system. 
  // All negative values are set to 0 at this point.
  //Then all values that are below X-percent of the maximum
  // value are set to X-percent of the maximum value
  // producing a floor for the values.
  //Then all values are biased so that the minimum value
  // (the floor) becomes 0.
  //Then all values are scaled so that the maximum value
  // becomes 255.
  void normalize(double[][] plane){
    int rows = plane.length;
    int cols = plane[0].length;
    
    //Begin by converting all negative values to positive
    // values.  This is equivalent to the computation of
    // the magnitude for purely real data.
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        if(plane[row][col] < 0){
          plane[row][col] = - plane[row][col];
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    
    //Convert the values to log base 10 to preserve the
    // dynamic range of the plotting system.  Set negative
    // values to 0.

    //First eliminate or change any values that are
    // incompatible with log10 method.
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        if(plane[row][col] == 0.0){
          plane[row][col] = 0.0000001;
        }else if(plane[row][col] == Double.NaN){
          plane[row][col] = 0.0000001;
        }else if(plane[row][col] == 
                                 Double.POSITIVE_INFINITY){
          plane[row][col] = 9999999999.0;
        }//end else
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop

    //Now convert the data to log base 10 setting all
    // negative results to 0.
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        plane[row][col] = log10(plane[row][col]);
        if(plane[row][col] < 0){
          plane[row][col] = 0;
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop

    //Now set everything below X-percent of the maximum
    // value to X-percent of the maximum value where X is
    // determined by the value of scale.
    double scale = 1.0/7.0;
    //First find the maximum value.
    double max = Double.MIN_VALUE;
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        if(plane[row][col] > max){
          max = plane[row][col];
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop

    //Now set everything below X-percent of the maximum to
    // X-percent of the maximum value and slide
    // everything down to cause the new minimum to be
    // at 0.0
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        if(plane[row][col] < scale * max){
          plane[row][col] = scale * max;
        }//end if
        plane[row][col] -= scale * max;
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    
    //Now scale the data so that the maximum value is 255.

    //First find the maximum value
    max = Double.MIN_VALUE;
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        if(plane[row][col] > max){
          max = plane[row][col];
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    //Now scale the data.
    for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
        plane[row][col] = plane[row][col] * 255.0/max;
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop

  }//end normalize
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
}//end class ImgMod35a

Listing 17

Listing 18

/*File ForwardDCT02.java
Copyright 2006, R.G.Baldwin
Rev 01/19/06

THIS VERSION IS OPTIMIZED FOR USE WITH 8x8 IMAGES.

See ForwardDCT01 for a general purpose version that works
for images of different sizes.  This version will also 
work with images of any size, but it is optimized for use
with 8x8-pixel images.

When transforming an 8x8-pixel image, this version uses an 
8x8 cosine lookup table instead of calling the cos 
function.  Otherwise, it calls the cosine function during
each iteration.  It is probably faster to use the lookup
table than it is to call the cosine function.

The static method named transform performs a forward 
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) on an incoming series
and returns the DCT spectrum.

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform
#DCT-II and http://rkb.home.cern.ch/rkb/AN16pp/node61.html
for background on the DCT.

This formulation is from 
http://www.cmlab.csie.ntu.edu.tw/cml/dsp/training/
coding/transform/dct.html


Incoming parameters are:
  double[] x - incoming real data
  double[] y - outgoing real data

Tested using J2SE 5.0 under WinXP.  Requires J2SE 5.0 or
later due to the use of static import of Math class.
**********************************************************/
import static java.lang.Math.*;

public class ForwardDCT02{

  //Enable the following statement to count and display
  // the number of computations.
  //static long callCount = 0;
  public static void transform(double[] x,double[] y){

  //The following values for the cosine table were obtained
  // by running the program with the call to the cos
  // function intact, printing the cosine of the argument,
  // capturing it, and then inserting the values here.
  // These are the cosine values used for transforming a
  // series containing 8 values.
 
  double[][] cosineTable = {
                            {1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0,
                            1.0},
                            
                            {0.9807852804032304,
                            0.8314696123025452,
                            0.5555702330196023,
                            0.19509032201612833,
                            -0.1950903220161282,
                            -0.555570233019602,
                            -0.8314696123025453,
                            -0.9807852804032304},
                            
                            {0.9238795325112867,
                            0.38268343236508984,
                            -0.3826834323650897,
                            -0.9238795325112867,
                            -0.9238795325112868,
                            -0.38268343236509034,
                            0.38268343236509,
                            0.9238795325112865},
                            
                            {0.8314696123025452,
                            -0.1950903220161282,
                            -0.9807852804032304,
                            -0.5555702330196022,
                            0.5555702330196018,
                            0.9807852804032304,
                            0.19509032201612878,
                            -0.8314696123025451},
                            
                            {0.7071067811865476,
                            -0.7071067811865475,
                            -0.7071067811865477,
                            0.7071067811865474,
                            0.7071067811865477,
                            -0.7071067811865467,
                            -0.7071067811865471,
                            0.7071067811865466},
                            
                            {0.5555702330196023,
                            -0.9807852804032304,
                            0.1950903220161283,
                            0.8314696123025456,
                            -0.8314696123025451,
                            -0.19509032201612803,
                            0.9807852804032307,
                            -0.5555702330196015},
                            
                            {0.38268343236508984,
                            -0.9238795325112868,
                            0.9238795325112865,
                            -0.3826834323650899,
                            -0.38268343236509056,
                            0.9238795325112867,
                            -0.9238795325112864,
                            0.38268343236508956},
                            
                            {0.19509032201612833,
                            -0.5555702330196022,
                            0.8314696123025456,
                            -0.9807852804032307,
                            0.9807852804032304,
                            -0.831469612302545,
                            0.5555702330196015,
                            -0.19509032201612858}
                          };

    //Enable the following statement to count and display
    // the number of computations.
    //long count = 0;
    int N = x.length;
    if(N == 8){
      //Run optimized version by using cosine lookup table 
      // instead of computing cosine values for each
      // iteration.
      //Outer loop interates on frequency values.
      for(int k=0; k < N;k++){
        double sum = 0.0;
        //Inner loop iterates on time-series values.
        for(int n=0; n < N; n++){
          double cosine = cosineTable[k][n];
          double product = x[n]*cosine;
          sum += product;
          //Enable the following statement to count and 
          //display the number of computations.
          //count++;
        }//end inner loop
  
        double alpha;
        if(k == 0){
          alpha = 1.0/sqrt(2);
        }else{
          alpha = 1;
        }//end else
        y[k] = sum*alpha*sqrt(2.0/N);
      }//end outer loop
    }else{
      //Run regular version by computing cosine values for
      // each iteration.
      //Outer loop interates on frequency values.
      for(int k=0; k < N;k++){
        double sum = 0.0;
        //Inner loop iterates on time-series values.
        for(int n=0; n < N; n++){
          double arg = PI*k*(2.0*n+1)/(2*N);
          double cosine = cos(arg);
          double product = x[n]*cosine;
          sum += product;
          //Enable the following statement to count and 
          //display the number of computations.
          //count++;
        }//end inner loop
  
        double alpha;
        if(k == 0){
          alpha = 1.0/sqrt(2);
        }else{
          alpha = 1;
        }//end else
        y[k] = sum*alpha*sqrt(2.0/N);
      }//end outer loop
    }//end else
    //Enable the following two statements to count and 
    //display the number of computations.
    //callCount++;
    //System.out.println(callCount + " " + count + " " 
    //                   + callCount*count);
  }//end transform method
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
}//end class ForwardDCT02

Listing 18

Listing 19

/*File ImgMod35.java
Copyright 2005, R.G.Baldwin

This program performs a forward DCT on an image converting 
the three color planes into spectral planes.  Then it 
performs an inverse DCT on the three spectral planes 
converting them back into image color planes.

Nothing is done to the spectral planes following the 
forward DCT and before the inverse DCT.  However, 
additional processing, such as requantization and 
compression, followed by decompression could be inserted at
that point.

This is an update to ImgMod34.  This update breaks the 
image down into blocks of 8x8-pixels and performs the 
forward DCT on each block producing 8x8 blocks of spectral 
coefficient data.  Then it performs an inverse DCT on each 
of the 8x8 spectral blocks, reproducing the 8x8 pixel 
blocks.  The composite of all the 8x8-pixel blocks 
constitutes the total image.  Zero padding is applied to 
the right and bottom of the image to force each
dimension of the image to be a multiple of 8 pixels.  This 
padding is trimmed from the resulting spectral planes and 
the resulting composite image before the processed 
composite image is returned to the calling method.  This 
process doesn't appear to have a detrimental impact on the 
quality of the image at the edges.

For illustration purposes only, the method named 
inverseXform8x8Plane contains a statement that can be 
activated to cause the 8x8 block structure of the entire 
process to become visible in the final image. This feature 
should be disabled by default because it badly corrupts the
visual quality of the image when it is enabled.

Note that this version of the program is significantly 
faster than the version named ImgMod034, which does not 
break the image down into 8x8-pixel blocks, but rather does
the forward and inverse DCT on the entire image.

Among other things, this program uses an 8x8 cosine lookup
table instead of computing the cosine value every time it
is needed.  This is probably one factor in the speed
improvement.  Another factor is the simple fact that less
arithmetic is required to perform the transform when the
image is sub-divided into blocks and the transforms are
performed on the individual blocks instead of transforming
the entire image as a whole.

The class is designed to be driven by the class named 
ImgMod02a.  

Enter the following at the command line to run this 
program:

java ImgMod02a ImgMod35 ImageFileName

where ImageFileName is the name of a .gif or .jpg file, 
including the extension.

When you click the Replot button, the process will be 
repeated and the results will be re-displayed.  Because
there is no opportunity for user input after the program is
started, the Replot button is of little value to this 
program.

This program requires access to the following class files 
plus some inner classes that are defined inside the
following classes:

ImgIntfc02.class
ImgMod02a.class
ImgMod35.class
InverseDCT02.class
ForwardDCT02.class

Tested using J2SE 5.0 and WinXP.  J2SE 5.0 or later is 
required due to the use of static imports.
**********************************************************/
import java.awt.*;
import java.io.*;
import static java.lang.Math.*;

class ImgMod35 implements ImgIntfc02{
                                        
  //This method is required by ImgIntfc02.  It is called at
  // the beginning of the run and each time thereafter that
  // the user clicks the Replot button on the Frame
  // contaning the images.
  public int[][][] processImg(int[][][] threeDPix,
                              int imgRows,
                              int imgCols){

    //Create an empty output array of the same size as the
    // incoming array.
    int[][][] output = new int[imgRows][imgCols][4];

    //Make a working copy of the 3D pixel array as type
    // double to avoid making permanent changes to the
    // original image data.  Also, all processing will be
    // performed as type double.
    double[][][] working3D = copyToDouble(threeDPix);
    
    //The following code can be enabled to set any of the
    // three colors to black, thus removing them from the
    // output.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
//        working3D[row][col][1] = 0;
//        working3D[row][col][2] = 0;
//        working3D[row][col][3] = 0;
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    
    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the red color plane
    double[][] redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);
    //Expand the plane such that both dimensions are a
    // multiple of 8.
    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane);
    //Do the forward DCT on the redPlane turning it into a
    // spectral plane where each individual spectrum stored
    // in the plane is an 8x8 square.  To see the
    // individual spectra, disable all but one color plane
    // and disable the inverse transforms that are
    // performed later.
    forwardXformPlane(redPlane);
    //Insert the spectral plane back into the 3D array. 
    // This method also trims off any extra rows and
    // columns created by expanding the dimensions to a
    // multiple of 8.  Since those rows and columns
    // contain spectral data, the trimming could
    // conceivably cause problems with the quality of the
    // image at the right and bottom edges later.  If so, I
    // will need to save the spectral plane somewhere else
    // without trimming it.
    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);

    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the green color
    // plane.
    double[][] greenPlane = extractPlane(working3D,2);
    greenPlane = expandPlane(greenPlane);
    forwardXformPlane(greenPlane);
    //Insert the plane back into the 3D array
    insertPlane(working3D,greenPlane,2);

    //Extract and do a forward DCT on the blue color plane.
    double[][] bluePlane = extractPlane(working3D,3);
    bluePlane = expandPlane(bluePlane);
    forwardXformPlane(bluePlane);
    //Insert the plane back into the 3D array
    insertPlane(working3D,bluePlane,3);
    
    //All three color planes have now been transformed into
    // spectral planes where each spectral plane is
    // composed of a large number of contiguous 8x8
    // spectral data blocks.
    
    //Now transform the spectral planes back into image
    // color planes.
    //You can disable this section of code and disable two
    // of the three colors to get some idea as to what the
    // spectral planes look like.  If you don't disable two
    // of the colors, you will see a composite of all three
    // spectral planes, which may or may not be
    // informative.  At least, it shows the 8x8 block
    // structure of the spectral planes even if it is a
    // composite of three spectral planes.
    
    //Extract and do an inverse DCT on the red spectral
    // plane to produce a color image plane.
    redPlane = extractPlane(working3D,1);
    //Expand the plane such that both dimensions are a
    // multiple of 8.
    redPlane = expandPlane(redPlane);
    //Do the inverse DCT on the spectral plane producing a
    // color image plane.
    inverseXformPlane(redPlane);
    //Insert the color plane back into the 3D array. This
    // also trims off any extra rows and columns created by
    // expanding to a multiple of 8.
    insertPlane(working3D,redPlane,1);
    
    //Extract and do an inverse DCT on the green spectral
    // plane to produce a color image plane.
    greenPlane = extractPlane(working3D,2);
    greenPlane = expandPlane(greenPlane);
    inverseXformPlane(greenPlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,greenPlane,2);
    
    //Extract and do an inverse DCT on the blue spectral
    // plane to produce a color image plane.
    bluePlane = extractPlane(working3D,3);
    bluePlane = expandPlane(bluePlane);
    inverseXformPlane(bluePlane);
    insertPlane(working3D,bluePlane,3);

    //End of section that does the inverse transforms.
    
    //Convert the image color planes to type int and return
    // the array of pixel data to the calling method.
    output = copyToInt(working3D);
    //Return a reference to the output array.
    return output;

  }//end processImg method
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to extract a specified
  // row from a double 2D plane and to return it as a one-
  // dimensional array of type double.
  double[] extractRow(double[][] colorPlane,int row){
    
    int numCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    double[] output = new double[numCols];
    for(int col = 0;col < numCols;col++){
      output[col] = colorPlane[row][col];
    }//end outer loop
    return output;
  }//end extractRow
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to insert a specified
  // row of double data into a double 2D plane.
  void insertRow(double[][] colorPlane,
                 double[] theRow,
                 int row){
    int numCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    double[] output = new double[numCols];
    for(int col = 0;col < numCols;col++){
      colorPlane[row][col] = theRow[col];
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insertRow
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to extract a specified
  // col from a double 2D plane and to return it as a one-
  // dimensional array of type double.
  double[] extractCol(double[][] colorPlane,int col){
    int numRows = colorPlane.length;
    double[] output = new double[numRows];
    for(int row = 0;row < numRows;row++){
      output[row] = colorPlane[row][col];
    }//end outer loop
    return output;
  }//end extractCol
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to insert a specified
  // col of double data into a double 2D color plane.
  void insertCol(double[][] colorPlane,
                 double[] theCol,
                 int col){
    int numRows = colorPlane.length;
    double[] output = new double[numRows];
    for(int row = 0;row < numRows;row++){
      colorPlane[row][col] = theCol[row];
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insertCol
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to extract a color plane
  // from the double version of an image and to return it
  // as a 2D array of type double.
  public double[][] extractPlane(
                              double[][][] threeDPixDouble,
                              int plane){
    
    int numImgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int numImgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    //Create an empty output array of the same
    // size as a single plane in the incoming array of
    // pixels.
    double[][] output =new double[numImgRows][numImgCols];

    //Copy the values from the specified plane to the
    // double array.
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        output[row][col] =
                          threeDPixDouble[row][col][plane];
      }//end loop on col
    }//end loop on row
    return output;
  }//end extractPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to insert a double 2D
  // plane into the double 3D array that represents an
  // image.  This method also trims off any extra rows and
  // columns in the double 2D plane.
  public void insertPlane(double[][][] threeDPixDouble,
                          double[][] colorPlane,
                          int plane){
    
    int numImgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int numImgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    //Copy the values from the incoming color plane to the
    // specified plane in the 3D array.
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        threeDPixDouble[row][col][plane] = 
                                      colorPlane[row][col];
      }//end loop on col
    }//end loop on row
  }//end insertPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //This method copies an int version of a 3D pixel array
  // to an new pixel array of type double.
  double[][][] copyToDouble(int[][][] threeDPix){
    int imgRows = threeDPix.length;
    int imgCols = threeDPix[0].length;
    
    double[][][] new3D = new double[imgRows][imgCols][4];
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
        new3D[row][col][0] = threeDPix[row][col][0];
        new3D[row][col][1] = threeDPix[row][col][1];
        new3D[row][col][2] = threeDPix[row][col][2];
        new3D[row][col][3] = threeDPix[row][col][3];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return new3D;
  }//end copyToDouble
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //This method copies a double version of a 3D pixel array
  // into a new pixel array of type int.
  int[][][] copyToInt(double[][][] threeDPixDouble){
    int imgRows = threeDPixDouble.length;
    int imgCols = threeDPixDouble[0].length;
    
    int[][][] new3D = new int[imgRows][imgCols][4];
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
        new3D[row][col][0] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][0];
        new3D[row][col][1] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][1];
        new3D[row][col][2] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][2];
        new3D[row][col][3] = 
                         (int)threeDPixDouble[row][col][3];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return new3D;
  }//end copyToInt
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to clip all negative 
  // color values in a double color plane to a value of 0.
  void clipToZero(double[][] colorPlane){
    int numImgRows = colorPlane.length;
    int numImgCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    //Do the clip
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        if(colorPlane[row][col] < 0){
          colorPlane[row][col] = 0;
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end clipToZero
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //The purpose of this method is to clip all color values
  // in a double color plane that are greater than 255 to
  // a value of 255.
  void clipTo255(double[][] colorPlane){
    int numImgRows = colorPlane.length;
    int numImgCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    //Do the clip
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
        if(colorPlane[row][col] > 255){
          colorPlane[row][col] = 255;
        }//end if
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end clipTo255
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Expand a double 2D plane such that both dimensions are
  // a multiple of 8.
  double[][] expandPlane(double[][] plane){
    int rows = plane.length;
    int cols = plane[0].length;
    double[][] output;
    
    int rowsRem = rows%8;
    int colsRem = cols%8;
    
    if((rowsRem == 0) && (colsRem == 0)){
      //No expansion is required.
      return plane;
    }else{
      //An expansion is required.  Copy the data from the
      // incoming array to a new expanded array, leaving
      // pad values of 0.0 at the right and bottom edges.
      output = new double
              [rows + (8 - rowsRem)][cols + (8 - colsRem)];
      for(int row = 0;row < rows;row++){
        for(int col = 0;col < cols;col++){
          output[row][col] = plane[row][col];
        }//end inner loop
      }//end outer loop
      return output;
    }//end else
  }//end expandPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Extracts and returns an 8x8 block from a double 2D
  // plane.
  double[][] get8x8Block(double[][] colorPlane,
                         int segRow,
                         int segCol){
    double[][] the8x8Block = new double[8][8];
    for(int bigRow = segRow * 8,smallRow = 0;
                                 bigRow < (segRow * 8 + 8);
                                      bigRow++,smallRow++){
      for(int bigCol = segCol * 8,smallCol = 0;
                                   bigCol < segCol * 8 + 8;
                                      bigCol++,smallCol++){
        the8x8Block[smallRow][smallCol] = 
                                colorPlane[bigRow][bigCol];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
    return the8x8Block;
  }//end get8x8Block
  //-----------------------------------------------------//

  //Inserts an 8x8 block into a double 2D plane
  void insert8x8Block(double[][] colorPlane,
                      double[][] the8x8Plane,
                      int segRow,
                      int segCol){
    for(int bigRow = segRow * 8,smallRow = 0;
                                 bigRow < (segRow * 8 + 8);
                                      bigRow++,smallRow++){
      for(int bigCol = segCol * 8,smallCol = 0;
                                   bigCol < segCol * 8 + 8;
                                      bigCol++,smallCol++){
        colorPlane[bigRow][bigCol] = 
                           the8x8Plane[smallRow][smallCol];
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end insert8x8Block
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Breaks a double color plane down into 8x8-pixel blocks
  // and does a forward DCT xform on each block.  Assembles
  // the resulting spectral data blocks into a spectral
  // plane. Assumes that the dimensions of the color plane
  // are multiples of 8
  void forwardXformPlane(double[][] plane){
    int pixRows = plane.length;
    int pixCols = plane[0].length;
    //Loop on rows of 8x8 blocks
    for(int segRow = 0;segRow < pixRows/8;segRow++){
      //Loop on cols of 8x8 blocks
      for(int segCol = 0;segCol < pixCols/8;segCol++){
        double[][] the8x8Plane = 
                          get8x8Block(plane,segRow,segCol);
        forwardXform8x8Block(the8x8Plane);
        insert8x8Block(plane,the8x8Plane,segRow,segCol);
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end forwardXformPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //This method does a forward DCT on an 8x8 block of
  // pixels from a color plane received as an incoming
  // parameter.
  void forwardXform8x8Block(double[][] the8x8Block){
    
    int imgRows = 8;
    int imgCols = 8;
    
    //Extract each row from the 8x8-pixel block and perform
    // a forward DCT on the row. Then insert the
    // transformed row back into the block.  At that point,
    // the row no longer contains color pixel data, but
    // has been transformed into a row of spectral data.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      double[] theRow = extractRow(the8x8Block,row);
      
      double[] theXform = new double[theRow.length];
      //Perform the forward transform.
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theRow,theXform);
      
      //Insert the transformed row back into the block.
      insertRow(the8x8Block,theXform,row);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The block now contains the results of doing the
    // horizontal DCT one row at a time.  The block no
    // longer contains color pixel data.  Rather, it
    // contains spectral data for the horizontal dimension
    // only.
    
    //Extract each column from the block and perform a
    // forward DCT on the column. Then insert the
    // transformed column back into the block.
    for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
      double[] theCol = extractCol(the8x8Block,col);

      double[] theXform = new double[theCol.length];
      ForwardDCT02.transform(theCol,theXform);

      insertCol(the8x8Block,theXform,col);
    }//end for loop
    
    //The 8x8 block has now been converted into an 8x8
    // block of spectral coefficient data.

  }//end forwardXform8x8Block
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //Breaks a spectral plane down into 8x8 blocks, performs
  // an inverse DCT on each block, and inserts the
  // resulting 8x8 image blocks into a color plane. Assumes
  // that the dimensions of the plane are multiples of 8
  void inverseXformPlane(double[][] plane){
    int pixRows = plane.length;
    int pixCols = plane[0].length;
    //Loop on rows of 8x8 blocks
    for(int segRow = 0;segRow < pixRows/8;segRow++){
      //Loop on cols of 8x8 blocks
      for(int segCol = 0;segCol < pixCols/8;segCol++){
        double[][] the8x8Block = 
                          get8x8Block(plane,segRow,segCol);
        inverseXform8x8Plane(the8x8Block);
        insert8x8Block(plane,the8x8Block,segRow,segCol);
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end inverseXformPlane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //This method performs an inverse DCT on an 8x8 spectral
  // data block.
  void inverseXform8x8Plane(double[][] the8x8Block){
    
    int imgRows = 8;
    int imgCols = 8;

    //Extract each col from the spectral data block and
    // perform an inverse DCT on the column. Then insert it
    // back into the block, which is being transformed into
    // a block of color pixel data.
    for(int col = 0;col < imgCols;col++){
      double[] theXform = extractCol(the8x8Block,col);
      
      double[] theCol = new double[theXform.length];
      //Now perform the inverse transform.
      InverseDCT02.transform(theXform,theCol);
      
      //Insert it back into the block.
      insertCol(the8x8Block,theCol,col);
    }//end for loop
    
    //At this point, an inverse DCT has been performed on
    // each column in the spectral data block, one column
    // at a time.

    //Extract each row from the block and perform an
    // inverse DCT on the row. Then insert it back into the
    // block.  The row now contains color pixel data.
    for(int row = 0;row < imgRows;row++){
      double[] theXform = extractRow(the8x8Block,row);
      
      double[] theRow = new double[theXform.length];
      //Now perform the inverse transform.
      InverseDCT02.transform(theXform,theRow);
      
      //Insert it back into the block.
      insertRow(the8x8Block,theRow,row);
    }//end for loop
    
    //For illustration purposes only, activate the
    // following statement to cause the 8x8 block
    // structure of the entire process to become visible
    // in the displayed image.  This causes each individual
    // block of pixel data to be a slightly different 
    // color.
    //addRandom(the8x8Block);
    
    //At this point, the spectral data block has been
    // converted into an 8x8 block of pixel color data. 
    // Ultimately it will be necessary to convert it to
    // 8-bit unsigned pixel color format in order to
    // display it.  Clip to zero and 255.
    clipToZero(the8x8Block);
    clipTo255(the8x8Block);
  }//end inverseXform8x8Plane
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
  
  //The purpose of this method is to add the same random
  // color value to all of the values in an 8x8 block of
  // image color data to cause the block structure of the
  // process to be visible.  This capability is intended
  // to be used for illustration purposes only as it
  // badly corrupts the quality of the image.
  void addRandom(double[][] colorPlane){
    double bias = 100.0 * random();
    int numImgRows = colorPlane.length;
    int numImgCols = colorPlane[0].length;
    //Do the clip
    for(int row = 0;row < numImgRows;row++){
      for(int col = 0;col < numImgCols;col++){
          colorPlane[row][col] += bias;
      }//end inner loop
    }//end outer loop
  }//end addRandom
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
}//end class ImgMod35

Listing 19

Listing 20

/*File InverseDCT02.java
Copyright 2006, R.G.Baldwin
Rev 01/19/06

THIS VERSION IS OPTIMIZED FOR USE WITH 8x8 IMAGES.

See InverseDCT01 for a general purpose version that works
for images of different sizes.  This version will also 
work with images of any size, but it is optimized for use
with 8x8-pixel images.

When transforming an 8x8-pixel image, this version uses an 
8x8 cosine lookup table instead of calling the cos 
function.  Otherwise, it calls the cosine function during
each iteration.  It is probably faster to use the lookup
table than it is to call the cosine function.

The static method named transform performs an inverse 
Discreet Cosine Transform (DCT) on in incoming DCT
spectrum and returns the DCT time or image series.

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform
#DCT-II and http://rkb.home.cern.ch/rkb/AN16pp/node61.html
for background on the DCT.

This formulation is from 
http://www.cmlab.csie.ntu.edu.tw/cml/dsp/training/
coding/transform/dct.html

Incoming parameters are:
  double[] y - incoming real data
  double[] x - outgoing real data

Tested using J2SE 5.0 under WinXP.  Requires J2SE 5.0 or
later due to the use of static import of Math class.
**********************************************************/
import static java.lang.Math.*;

public class InverseDCT02{

  public static void transform(double[] y,double[] x){
    
  //The following values for the cosine table were obtained
  // by running the program with the call to the cos
  // function intact, printing the cosine of the argument,
  // capturing it, and then inserting the values here.
  // These are the cosine values used for transforming a
  // series containing 8 values.
                                
    double[][] cosineTable = {
                              {1.0,
                              0.9807852804032304,
                              0.9238795325112867,
                              0.8314696123025452,
                              0.7071067811865476,
                              0.5555702330196023,
                              0.38268343236508984,
                              0.19509032201612833},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              0.8314696123025452,
                              0.38268343236508984,
                              -0.1950903220161282,
                              -0.7071067811865475,
                              -0.9807852804032304,
                              -0.9238795325112868,
                              -0.5555702330196022},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              0.5555702330196023,
                              -0.3826834323650897,
                              -0.9807852804032304,
                              -0.7071067811865477,
                              0.1950903220161283,
                              0.9238795325112865,
                              0.8314696123025456},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              0.19509032201612833,
                              -0.9238795325112867,
                              -0.5555702330196022,
                              0.7071067811865474,
                              0.8314696123025456,
                              -0.3826834323650899,
                              -0.9807852804032307},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              -0.1950903220161282,
                              -0.9238795325112868,
                              0.5555702330196018,
                              0.7071067811865477,
                              -0.8314696123025451,
                              -0.38268343236509056,
                              0.9807852804032304},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              -0.555570233019602,
                              -0.38268343236509034,
                              0.9807852804032304,
                              -0.7071067811865467,
                              -0.19509032201612803,
                              0.9238795325112867,
                              -0.831469612302545},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              -0.8314696123025453,
                              0.38268343236509,
                              0.19509032201612878,
                              -0.7071067811865471,
                              0.9807852804032307,
                              -0.9238795325112864,
                              0.5555702330196015},
                              
                              {1.0,
                              -0.9807852804032304,
                              0.9238795325112865,
                              -0.8314696123025451,
                              0.7071067811865466,
                              -0.5555702330196015,
                              0.38268343236508956,
                              -0.19509032201612858}
                             };

    int N = y.length;
    if(N == 8){
      //Run optimized version by using cosine lookup table 
      // instead of computing cosine values for each
      // iteration.
      //Outer loop interates on time values.
      for(int n=0; n < N;n++){
        double sum = 0.0;
        //Inner loop iterates on frequency values
        for(int k=0; k < N; k++){
          double cosine = cosineTable[n][k];
          double product = y[k]*cosine;
          double alpha;
          if(k == 0){
            alpha = 1.0/sqrt(2);
          }else{
            alpha = 1;
          }//end else
            
          sum += alpha * product;
        }//end inner loop
  
        x[n] = sum * sqrt(2.0/N);
      }//end outer loop
    }else{
      //Run regular version by computing cosine values for
      // each iteration.
      //Outer loop interates on time values.
      for(int n=0; n < N;n++){
        double sum = 0.0;
        //Inner loop iterates on frequency values
        for(int k=0; k < N; k++){
          double arg = PI*k*(2.0*n+1)/(2*N);
          double cosine = cos(arg);
          double product = y[k]*cosine;
          double alpha;
          if(k == 0){
            alpha = 1.0/sqrt(2);
          }else{
            alpha = 1;
          }//end else
            
          sum += alpha * product;
  
        }//end inner loop
  
        x[n] = sum * sqrt(2.0/N);
        
      }//end outer loop
    }//end else
  }//end transform method
  //-----------------------------------------------------//
}//end class InverseDCT02

Listing 20

Copyright 2006, Richard G. Baldwin.  Reproduction in whole or in part in any
form or medium without express written permission from Richard Baldwin is
prohibited.

About the author

Richard Baldwin is a
college professor (at Austin Community College in Austin, TX) and private
consultant whose primary focus is a combination of Java, C#, and XML. In
addition to the many platform and/or language independent benefits of Java and
C# applications, he believes that a combination of Java, C#, and XML will become
the primary driving force in the delivery of structured information on the Web.

Richard has participated in numerous consulting projects and he
frequently provides onsite training at the high-tech companies located in and
around Austin, Texas.  He is the author of Baldwin’s Programming
Tutorials, which have gained a
worldwide following among experienced and aspiring programmers. He has also
published articles in JavaPro magazine.

In addition to his programming expertise, Richard has many years of
practical experience in Digital Signal Processing (DSP).  His first job after he
earned his Bachelor’s degree was doing DSP in the Seismic Research Department of
Texas Instruments.  (TI is still a world leader in DSP.)  In the following
years, he applied his programming and DSP expertise to other interesting areas
including sonar and underwater acoustics.

Richard holds an MSEE degree from Southern Methodist University and has
many years of experience in the application of computer technology to real-world
problems.

Baldwin@DickBaldwin.com

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